Writing biomedical research papers in English - a challenge for non-Anglophone authors.

The antimicrobial activity of three root canal sealers on five standard bacteria strains was tested Introduction The root canal sealers have antimicrobial activity against some bacteria Material and Method The antimicrobial activity of three root canal sealers was tested against five standard bacteria strains Results The tones of inhibition were greatest with Endomethasone against all of the tested bacteria Discussion Antimicrobial activity of Endomethasone against oral bacteria is doubtful * Adapted from “Todorovi G, Matejašev S, Todorovi Lj. How to Make Writing in English Easier for Non-Anglophone Authors. Balk J Stom, 2003; 7:66-70” Volumen 70, Broj 4 VOJNOSANITETSKI PREGLED Strana 427 Anti Z, et al. Vojnosanit Pregl 2013; 70(4): 424–428. ever, the gerund, and not the infinitive, should be used in these instances : a) after words followed by preposition; b) after verbs such as avoid, risk, or stop; c) after some adjectives (busy, worth); and d) after certain phrases look forward to, or it's no use (Table 4). The frequent use of the passive voice in medical writing is impersonal and objective and creates a certain distance between the writer and the arguments proposed. Modal verbs are also frequently used for hedging, or expression of tentativeness and possibility. This allows the author to present statements with appropriate accuracy and caution, by expressing possibility rather than certainty and prudence rather than overconfidence . Hedging plays a major role in medical discourses 12, 13 where the accreditation of knowledge depends on the consensus of the research community. Where evidence must be evaluated, and there is a need to comment on its reliability, hedging helps to avoid potentially hostile responses, and it may facilitate acceptance of research claims. Research writing is necessarily a balance of fact and evaluation as the writer tries to present information as fully, accurately, and objectively as possible. Alternatively, a writer may wish to anticipate the possible negative consequences of being proven wrong and a claim disputed 10, 13, . Unneeded Words and Phrases, Abstract Nouns, and Jargon Lengthy sentences are tiresome to read . The reader has to search for the main message while trying to remember and place all of the subtopics and asides . Table 5 gives examples for using unneeded and wordy phrases. Abstract nouns formed from verbs (by adding “ion” at the end of the word) increase sentence length unnecessarily because of the need to add prepositions and verbs . Examples include “interpretation” from “interpret” or “production” from “produce”, etc. Replacing abstract nouns with their equivalent verbs makes the sentence more vivid 3 (Table 6). Jargon 3 is often characterized by slang or obscure meaning. It is always preferable to use simple English words instead of foreign words, phrases or jargon . For example, it is better to say “the patient could walk” than “the patient was mobile”, or “arms and legs” than “upper and lower extremities”. Furthermore, the use of informal idiom in a scientific paper can be quite unintelligible to many readers, especially the non-native English speaker. Table 3 Agreement in number between subject and predicate*nouns formed from verbs (by adding “ion” at the end of the word) increase sentence length unnecessarily because of the need to add prepositions and verbs . Examples include “interpretation” from “interpret” or “production” from “produce”, etc. Replacing abstract nouns with their equivalent verbs makes the sentence more vivid 3 (Table 6). Jargon 3 is often characterized by slang or obscure meaning. It is always preferable to use simple English words instead of foreign words, phrases or jargon . For example, it is better to say “the patient could walk” than “the patient was mobile”, or “arms and legs” than “upper and lower extremities”. Furthermore, the use of informal idiom in a scientific paper can be quite unintelligible to many readers, especially the non-native English speaker. Table 3 Agreement in number between subject and predicate* Incorrect Correct Words are media of expression. Words are a medium for expression. Patients with following criteria is not eligible for randomisation. Patients with following criteria are not eligible for randomisation. a Drug resistance phenomena was recognised very early in the history of cancer chemotherapy. Drug resistance phenomena were recognised very early in the history of cancer chemotherapy. Twenty percent of time are spent on administration. Twenty percent of time is spent on administration. Four-fifths of the area are contaminated. Four-fifths of the area is contaminated. A number of respondents was verbose in their answers. A number of respondents were verbose in their answers. b The number of respondents were surprising. The number of respondents was surprising. * Adapted from: Todorovi G, Matejašev S, Todorovi Lj. How to Make Writing in English Easier for Non-Anglophone Authors. Balk J Stom, 2003; 7:66-70 Table 4 Misuse of the infinitive* Incorrect Correct He is a man capable to judge art. He is a man capable of judging art. We insist to check all records. We insist on checking all records. You should not risk to get your life in danger. You should not risk getting your life in danger. a He can’t stop to talk about his illness. He can’t stop talking about his illness. He was busy to get ready for his journey. He was busy getting ready for his journey. b His books are not worth to read. His books are not worth reading. I always look forward to hear from you. I always look forward to hearing from you. c It’s no use to ask her for an advice. It’s no use asking her for an advice. * Adapted from: Todorovi G, Matejašev S, Todorovi Lj. How to Make Writing in English Easier for Non-Anglophone Authors. Balk J Stom, 2003; 7:66-70 7 Table 5 Unneeded words and phrases Verbose Concise it is reported by Smith that Smith reported are of the same opinion agree as a consequence of because as far as our own observations are concerned, they show we observed despite the fact that although was of the opinion believed Strana 428 VOJNOSANITETSKI PREGLED Volumen 70, Broj 4 Anti Z, et al. Vojnosanit Pregl 2013; 70(4): 424–428. “Verbosity” – the use of long instead of one-syllable words , should also be avoided. Words and phrases often used in medical conversation, such as “blood sugar” (glucose concentration in blood), should be avoided in scientific writing, as well as terms like “diabetics”, “psychotics” and similar labelling of participants in the study. It is better to write “patients with diabetes” than “diabetic patients” even though the first expression is longer. The word “participant” is frequently used in clinical studies. The terms “subjects” and “individuals” are acceptable, but the term “participants” is more correct because it reflects the role of people in the research process . Throughout papers on clinical studies, authors should refer to their patients rather than cases, and they should be careful not to dehumanise their participants (patients) by using the wrong pronoun. For example, it is correct to write “participants who” and dehumanising to write “participants that”. Un-English Expressions When writing in English, non-Anglophone authors should always consider the need to transmit content, i.e. meaning and essence of the sentence rather than its form . Errors often occur when authors translate expressions from their native language directly into English, following structure rather than meaning. To sum up instead of a conclusion Medical writing is a particular skill set in scientific communication. To accommodate an international readership, it needs to be clear and concise, and written in plain English, with the reader in mind. Research that furthers the progress of science deserves to be presented in the best possible way. The simple guidelines for the grammar and language of written biomedical communication described in this paper are intended to help authors improve the style and structure of their medical research papers. Acknowledging many difficulties of writing in a foreign language, before submitting a paper to an English-language journal, a nonEnglish author is advised to seek review by a reader who knows the English idiom well . This final step will ensure that the contents of papers are clear and enjoyable to read for a wide professional audience.